Cloward and Ohlin: Illegitimate Opportunity Structures (1960)

Cloward and Ohlin sought to combine the theories of Merton and Cohen to explain the different kinds of criminal subcultures they identified in contemporary America.

Echoing Merton, they argued that there was a "legitimate opportunity structure" (what Merton had meant by the socially-acceptable means to achieving social goals), but they also identified an alternative "illegitimate opportunity structure" which was available through gang membership.

However, just as not all people could easily access the legitimate opportunity structure and material success (Merton's concept of strain), there could also be a strain in relation to illegitimate opportunity structures. Because someone is unable to become wealthy through working hard and gaining qualifications does not mean that they will easily find a criminal path to wealth and success. Some people live in locations where an existing criminal subculture already exists while others do not. Furthermore, the types of subcultures available vary. This goes some way to explaining why not all those who find legitimate opportunity structures blocked turn to crime.

Cloward and Ohlin suggest three types of deviant subculture: